1 Introduction. - 1. 1 General Perspective. - 1. 2 Electrical Exposure. - 1. 3 Scales of Short-Term Reactions to Contact Current. - 1. 4 Reactions to Electric and Magnetic Field Stimulation. - 1. 5 Variables Affecting Thresholds. - 2 Impedance and Current Distribution. - 2. 1 Dielectric Properties of Biological Materials. - 2. 2 Skin Impedance. - 2. 3 Total Body Impedance: Low-Frequency and DC. - 2. 4 Impedance at Higher Frequencies. - 2. 5 Impedance Through Foot Contact. - 2. 6 High-Voltage and Transient Properties. - 2. 7 Impedance of Domestic Animals. - 3 Electrical Principles of Nerve and Muscle Function. - 3. 1 Introduction. - 3. 2 Cellular Membranes. - 3. 3 The Excitable Nerve Membrane. - 3. 4 Action Potential Models for Cardiac Tissue. - 3. 5 Sensory Transduction. - 3. 6 Muscle Function. - 3. 7 Synapses. - 3. 8 The Spinal Reflex. - 4 Excitation Models. - 4. 1 Introduction. - 4. 2 Linear Strength-Duration Model. - 4. 3 Electrical Cable Representations. - 4. 4 Myelinated Nerve Model. - 4. 5 Response to Monophasic Stimulation. - 4. 6 Response to Biphasic and Repetitive Stimuli. - 4. 7 Parameter Variation Effects. - 5 Electrical Properties of the Heart. - 5. 1 Cardiovascular System: General Anatomical and Functional Aspects. - 5. 2 Origin and Spread of Excitation. - 5. 3 Elementary Processes of Excitation and Contraction. - 5. 4 Stimulation Propagation and Refractoriness. - 5. 5 Regular and Ectopic Pacemakers. - 5. 6 Effects of Autonomic Nerves and of Changes in Electrolyte Composition. - 5. 7 Electrocardiogram. - 5. 8 Abnormalities in Cardiac Rhythm as Reflected in the ECG. - 5. 9 Mechanism of Flutter and Fibrillation. - 5. 10 Vulnerable Period: Threshold for Fibrillation. - 5. 11 Electrical Defibrillation. - 6 Cardiac Sensitivity to Electrical Stimulation. - 6. 1 Introduction. - 6. 2 Threshold Sensitivity with Respect to Cardiac Cycle. - 6. 3 Strength-Duration Relations for Unidirectional Currents. - 6. 4 Biphasic and Sinusoidal Stimulation. - 6. 5 Duration Sensitivity for Oscillatory Stimuli. - 6. 6 Energy Criteria and Impulse Currents. - 6. 7 Body-Size Scaling. - 6. 8 Statistical Distribution of Thresholds. - 6. 9 Combined AC and DC Stimuli. - 6. 10 Electrodes and Current Density. - 7 Sensory Responses to Electrical Stimulation. - 7. 1 Introduction. - 7. 2 Mechanisms of Electrical Transduction. - 7. 3 Perception of Transient Monophasic Currents. - 7. 4 Suprathreshold Responses. - 7. 5 Stimulus Waveform Factors. - 7. 6 Electrodes and Current Density. - 7. 7 Body Location Sensitivity. - 7. 8 Skin Temperature. - 7. 9 Tactile Masking. - 7. 10 Individual Differences in Electrical Sensitivity. - 7. 11 Startle Reactions. - 7. 12 Electrical Stimulation of Domestic Animals. - 7. 13 Visual and Auditory Effects. - 8 Skeletal Muscle Response to Electrical Stimulation. - 8. 1 Introduction. - 8. 2 Neuromuscular Structure and Function. - 8. 3 Fundamental Principles of Skeletal Muscle Electrical Stimulation. - 8. 4 Functional Neuromuscular Stimulation Systems. - 8. 5 Skeletal Muscle Stimulation in Electrical Accidents. - 8. 6 Analysis of the Let-Go Phenomenon. - 8. 7 Effects of Electrical Stimulation on Respiration. - 9 Stimulation via Electric and Magnetic Fields. - 9. 1 Introduction. - 9. 2 Electric Field Induction Principles. - 9. 3 Direct Perception of ELF Electric Fields. - 9. 4 Human Reactions to AC Electric Field-Induced Shock. - 9. 5 Time-Varying Magnetic Field Induction. - 9. 6 Principles of Excitation by Time-Varying Magnetic Fields. - 9. 7 Experimental Investigations of Magnetic Excitation: Large Area Exposure. - 9. 8 Visual and Auditory Reactions to Electromagnetic Exposure. - 9. 9 Local Magnetic Stimulation. - 9. 10 Scales of Reaction: Power Frequency. - 9. 11 Magnetic Forces on Moving Charges. - 10 High-Voltage and High-Current Injuries. - 10. 1 Introduction. - 10. 2 Modes of Injury. - 10. 3 Impedance Considerations and Current Distribution in the Body. - 10. 4 Thermal Trauma. - 10. 5 Nonthermal Trauma. - 10. 6 Lightning Injuries. - 10. 7 Clinical Observations. - 10. 8 Clinical Treatment. - 11 Standards and Rationale. - 11. 1 Introduction. - 11. 2 Electromagnetic Field Exposure Standards. - 11. 3 Pulsed Electromagnetic Fields. - 11. 4 Consideration of Spark Discharges in EMF Standards. - 11. 5 Absorbed Energy and Thermal Considerations in EMF Standards. - 11. 6 Consideration of EMF Interaction Mechanisms in Standards Setting. - 11. 7 ELF Magnetic Field Standards Derived from Established Mechanisms. - 11. 8 Standards in Consumer Products and Installations. - References. Language: English